• What is Autism?

Education, Therapy and Treatment Practices

Educational, therapeutic, and treatment practices used in the field of autism spectrum disorder are quite diverse. New ones are added to these practices every day. In order to understand whether a practice is truly beneficial for individuals with autism, this practice must be scientifically evaluated and accepted.

For an application to be scientifically accepted, it must be supported by research with two fundamental characteristics: 

  • being examined through a scientific study conducted on individuals with autism, showing the effect of the applied practice within a cause-and-effect relationship, 
  • This research having been reviewed by scientists who are experts in their field and published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. 

This classification, based on scientific impact, aims to serve as a guide for parents and educators so they can choose the safest and most effective practices for their children. As families and educators, always pay attention to the scientific impact when choosing an application for your child. Practices with weak scientific impact can lead to a waste of time, effort, and resources, and in some cases, can also be risky for the child.

Educational Practices

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a discipline that encompasses applications based on behavioral psychology theories. Applied behavior analysis 

(ABA) objectively analyzes a child's behaviors and the environmental characteristics associated with those behaviors. It is thought that many behaviors are rewarded or punished by the environment in some way. Therefore, by using various reward mechanisms (reinforcement) and, when strictly necessary, some deterrent mechanisms (e.g., taking back points the child has earned), attempts are made to increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate behaviors. Examples of behaviors targeted for increase in children with autism include imitation skills, joint attention skills, social skills, communication skills, play skills, and self-care skills; examples of behaviors targeted for decrease include obsessive behaviors and self-injurious or destructive behaviors toward the environment. In ABA studies for children with autism:

  • Every waking moment of the child,
  • targeting all of the child's behaviors,
  • In all the environments where the child spends their life,
  • By all important people in the child's life,
  • Education starting at the earliest possible age, implemented for at least 20 hours a week, is targeted.

The ultimate goal of ABA for children with autism is for them to reach a level where they can participate in inclusive educational programs alongside their peers. Compared to other approaches applied to children with autism, ABA stands out as the most robust practice whose success has been scientifically demonstrated through research. 

To get more detailed information about teaching practices based on Applied Behavior Analysis TOHUM Autism Foundation Training Portal Please review.  

ABA includes a wide variety of teaching practices, and these practices are used to teach different skills in the education of children with autism. The main headings of these practices are briefly explained below.

For more detailed information about the applications Education, Therapy, and Treatment Practices in Autism Spectrum Disorder You can review our booklets: 

Discrete Trial Training, also known as the Lovaas method, is the presentation of many teaching presentations one after another in a one-on-one teaching session. In these presentations, a question, instruction, or material is directed at the child, and a response is expected from the child in return. While correct responses from the child are reinforced, incorrect responses are ignored or corrected. In practice, the arrangements to be made before the behavior (e.g., preparing materials) and after the behavior (e.g., collecting data) are systematically planned and implemented. With this system, various skills from many developmental domains can be taught to children with autism. Discrete Trial Training can be used together with other practices such as prompting and reinforcement strategies, task analysis, and time delay instruction. The effectiveness of Discrete Trial Training in acquiring critical skill areas for children with autism, such as imitation, matching and classification, receptive language, play, and self-help skills, has been demonstrated by various studies.

Source Recommendations:

Differential reinforcement is a systematically used practice to decrease problem behaviors while simultaneously increasing one or more appropriate behaviors, and ensuring that the child responds correctly—in other words, makes a discrimination—in the presence of a stimulus (such as a question or instruction). In this practice, correct and desired behaviors are reinforced, while no reinforcement is provided when the problem behavior is displayed. Differential reinforcement is considered one of the gentlest ways to intervene with a child and is effective in reducing certain problem behaviors. If problem behaviors persist despite environmental adjustments and precautions taken, differential reinforcement can be applied. Differential reinforcement can be used in various ways. The main goal of the practice is to replace the problem behavior with a more appropriate one. To achieve this, the following paths can be followed:

  • The child is encouraged to express the same need through a more appropriate behavior. For example, if the child asks for help by raising their hand instead of getting up, this behavior is reinforced.
  • An appropriate behavior that is impossible to perform at the same time as the problem behavior is reinforced. For example, instead of getting up and wandering around the classroom during a lesson, staying seated is reinforced.
  • Performing some behaviors very frequently can cause problems. In this case, reducing the frequency of the behavior is supported. For example, brushing teeth is healthy; however, if done 8-10 times a day, it can be harmful. In this case, the goal is to reduce the number of brushings to 2-3 per day.
  • Reinforcement is provided when the child does not exhibit the problem behavior at all for a specified period of time. For example, a child who bites their hand every 10 minutes is reinforced if they do not bite their hand at all for an initial period of 2-3 minutes. This duration is gradually increased over time.

Source Recommendations:

Behavioral Momentum Intervention is presenting a high-probability request before a low-probability request during instruction, or ordering requests from easy to hard. High-probability requests are instructions that suit the child's interests and developmental characteristics, which they can do easily and willingly, questions they can answer, or tasks they can complete. Low-probability requests, on the other hand, are instructions, questions, or tasks that the child will struggle with or prefer not to do. It is an effective practice used to reduce difficulties, especially during transitions in children with autism, and to make learning more fluent. In behavioral momentum intervention, the child is first given a few easy and familiar instructions back-to-back. Immediately after successfully completing these instructions, a more difficult instruction targeting the desired skill is presented. This sequence ensures the reinforcement of the child's habit of responding correctly and helps the child perform the targeted behavior.

Source Recommendations:

  • Çelik, S. (2021). Evidence-based practices I: Focused interventions. In B. Sucuoğlu, H. Bakkaloğlu & M.Ç. Ökçün Akçamuş (Eds.). From Diagnosis to Intervention Autism Spectrum Disorder Handbook (pp. 505-567). Academic Vizier.
  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.

Naturalistic Interventions refer to the embedding of skills and behaviors targeted for children with autism into daily life activities and routines based on ABA principles, utilizing strategies such as environmental arrangement and reciprocal interaction. In accordance with the child's interests and needs, environmental modifications are made in natural settings such as home and school, and the child is encouraged to exhibit the desired behavior. When the child displays the behavior, they are enabled to receive natural reinforcers that are appropriate for their age and context. Research shows that naturalistic teaching practices contribute to skill areas such as academics, language, and play in children with autism.

There are different types of naturalistic teaching practices. These include incidental teaching and the mand-model procedure. In addition, pivotal response training is considered within the naturalistic teaching approach. This practice is also based on ABA principles and offers natural and interactive teaching opportunities tailored to the interests and motivations of children with autism. The purpose of pivotal response training is to equip children with autism with numerous skills to support their development and to provide opportunities for them to use these skills in daily life and natural environments.

Source Recommendations:

Visual supports are visual tools that enable children with autism to independently follow events, activities, transitions, and routines during various activities, and show them the behaviors targeted for teaching. These visuals include applications such as pictures, written words, organizing the environment with visual labels or boundaries, concept maps, schedules, and script instruction. One of the most frequently used applications among visual supports is activity schedules.

In the practice of teaching with activity schedules, the skill to be acquired by a child with autism is broken down into small steps, and a visual schedule depicting each step is prepared (for example, a notebook created with photographs). The child is asked to follow this schedule. For example, by turning the pages of the notebook, the child sees the next step and acts in accordance with the photograph there. During this process, physical prompts can be used to help the child execute the steps. Activity schedules are an effective practice for children with autism to perform self-care, daily living, and leisure skills without depending on others. These schedules not only increase independence; they also offer children opportunities to make choices, can increase social interaction, and help them follow their daily plans more easily by reducing anxiety. Depending on the child's characteristics, activity schedules:

  • Single-page or multi-page,
  •  formed with written or visual materials,
  • It can be prepared using a computer or other technological tools.

Source Recommendations:

Incidental Teaching is used to help children with autism or communication difficulties acquire or develop verbal or non-verbal communication skills. Incidental teaching practices are based on utilizing the child's interests to encourage them to say or do something. To this end, environmental arrangements are made to lay the groundwork for the child to initiate communication. For example, a toy that the child loves very much is placed in a place where the child can see it but cannot reach it. When the child attempts to reach for the toy, they are encouraged to exhibit a verbal or gestural communication behavior to request the toy. The child's communication efforts are reinforced by giving them the opportunity to obtain what they want. Increasingly advanced communication behaviors are expected from the child, and the child is provided with models when necessary.

Incidental teaching is one of the natural teaching practices based on ABA, and like other ABA-based teaching practices, teaching is carried out through consecutive trials. However, in these trials, the child is not presented with a skill prompt (for example, a question or instruction) to perform the target behavior; the child's communication attempt initiates the trial. For the practice to be effective, it is important that the child enjoys the interaction during teaching. 

  • Single-page or multi-page,
  •  formed with written or visual materials,
  • It can be prepared using a computer or other technological tools.

Source Recommendations:

Prompting is the assistance provided to a child just before the behavior is exhibited, in order for them to perform the behavior desired to be acquired. Providing an effective prompt means ensuring the child gives the correct response while intervening as little as possible. Prompts can be used in an order ranging from the most directive (most restrictive) prompts to the least directive (least restrictive) prompts, depending on the degree of assistance provided to the child. This ordering should be planned according to the child's needs. The types of prompts, ranging from the most directive prompt type to the least directive prompt type, can be listed as follows:

  • Physical Clue: It is a prompt provided to the child through physical contact/touch to help teach a behavior. Physical prompts are divided into two categories: full physical prompts and partial physical prompts. In a full physical prompt, the behavior is made to be performed by the child with complete control; for example, taking the object by holding over their hand. In a partial physical prompt, lighter assistance is provided for the child to exhibit the behavior; for example, guiding the child'arm toward the object.
  • Model Tip: It is the exhibition of the desired behavior by an adult or a peer for the purpose of prompting.
  • Visual Cue: They are visual tools, such as photographs or written instructions, that help the child exhibit the behavior.
  • Verbal Cue: It is providing verbal prompts such as explaining, giving instructions, and asking questions in order to increase the likelihood that the child will perform the target behavior.
  • Gesture/Sign Hint: These are prompting procedures that involve using specific facial expressions or gestures, such as pointing, to indicate what is expected of the child.

Prompts should be used in situations where they direct the child's attention to the instruction and/or the practitioner, and should be faded as soon as possible. 

Depending on the presentation and fading characteristics of the prompt, there are various prompted instruction methods such as delayed prompting, simultaneous prompting, prompting with constant time delay (graduated guidance), prompting with increasing prompts, and progressive prompting. These practices are “errorless teaching practices”is also called.

Source Recommendations:

Functional Behavioral Assessment was developed as an alternative to traditional behavior management systems. The purpose of this practice is to identify the situations (antecedents) that cause the problem behavior to occur and the situations that follow the behavior and increase the probability of it being repeated (reinforcing consequences). By determining what happens before and after the problem behavior, what this behavior serves—in other words, its function—is understood. With the behavioral intervention to be developed later, appropriate and acceptable behaviors that can serve the same function are taught to the child. Thus, the goal is not to eliminate the problem behavior, but to have it replaced by a more appropriate behavior. 

The primary functions of problem behaviors;

  • To gain the attention of others,
  • gaining an object or event opportunity,
  • To obtain sensory pleasure,
  • It is escaping from unwanted activity, attention, or sensory stimulus.

Research shows that common problem behaviors in children with autism generally serve the first three functions, while self-stimulatory behaviors primarily have the function of obtaining sensory pleasure. In teaching appropriate behaviors for these functions, behavior-increasing techniques, particularly reinforcement (e.g., shaping and chaining), are used.

Source Recommendations:

Functional Communication Training is an application that aims to teach the child communication skills that serve the same purpose as the problem behavior, thereby replacing the problem behavior with more appropriate and useful ways of communication. This application is used effectively, especially when the child exhibits inappropriate behaviors such as screaming, pulling, or throwing tantrums to express their desires. The following steps are followed during the application:;

  • First, the purpose served by the problem behavior exhibited by the child is determined. For example, to gain attention, to obtain something, or to escape from an undesirable situation.
  • Next, an appropriate communication method is chosen that can serve the same function as the problem behavior. This communication behavior can be verbal expressions, gestures, or alternative communication systems.
  • The selected communication behavior is taught to the child.
  • When the child uses this new communication skill, natural reinforcement is provided. For example, they are helped to obtain the desired object or activity.
  • However, when the child makes a request by screaming or throwing a tantrum as they did before, they are not given the opportunity to get what they want.

During the implementation of functional communication training, the most important point is that the targeted communication skill is appropriate for the child's performance and serves the same purpose as the problem behavior.

Source Recommendations:

Typically developing children learn many behaviors spontaneously by modeling, observing, and imitating their parents, siblings, peers, and teachers. However, in order for children with autism to be able to model and imitate, they must be taught which skill to imitate and be helped to direct their attention to the model's behavior. 

Modeling can be done in two ways:

  • Being a live model (Modeling): The direct exhibition of a behavior by a person.
  • Video Modeling: Demonstration of behavior via a video recording.

the instructional practice carried out when video modeling is preferred teaching with video model It is called video modeling. In teaching with a video model, the child watches the skills planned to be learned, for example, the skills of engaging in pretend play with farm animals, from a video. While watching, the same tools are placed in front of them. Through physical prompts presented from outside the child's field of vision, the child is enabled to do the exact same things they watched in the video. 

The benefits of video-based instruction include being able to use it repeatedly after the recordings are made, being applicable to different children who need to be taught the same behaviors, and being successfully implemented by individuals such as parents and siblings. There is a great deal of research showing that video-based instruction is effective in acquiring social, communication, play, self-help, and daily living skills.

Source Recommendations:

Antecedent-Based Interventions are practices that aim to reduce problem behaviors and/or increase appropriate behaviors through adjustments made before the behavior occurs. They are used in conjunction with practices such as functional behavioral assessment, reinforcement, and extinction. These interventions focus on understanding why inappropriate behaviors occur and making adjustments to prevent them. 

Among antecedent-based practices are strategies such as starting instruction with activities the child enjoys, offering choices among activities or materials, providing information to the child prior to an activity regarding how to complete it, making modifications to the child's schedule such as using different materials, utilizing visual supports to establish routines, and having the child engage in physical exercises like running or dancing before challenging activities.

Source Recommendations:

  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.

Visual supports are visual tools that enable children with autism to independently follow events, activities, transitions, and routines during instruction, and show them the behaviors targeted for teaching. These visuals include applications such as pictures, written words, organizing the environment with visual labels or boundaries, concept maps, schedules, and script-fading instruction. 

One of the practices used among visual supports is script training. Script training (scripting) is used to teach children the skills of interacting, initiating, and sustaining conversations. In this practice, by having the child read or listen to and repeat written or verbal scripts (expressions), the child is provided with verbal communication skills and conversational skills appropriate for social settings. 

Written or verbal script models are phased out over time. Thus, the child comes to use that expression at appropriate times without any assistance.

Source Recommendations:

Extinction is generally used in children with autism when problem behaviors are performed to gain attention or sensory stimulation. For example;

  • When the child throws toys (problem behavior), if the teacher comes over and pays attention to him, this behavior is reinforced by obtaining attention. For this behavior to be extinguished, the teacher must not show attention to the child in this situation.
  • If the child repeatedly brings the scented eraser to their nose (problem behavior), this behavior may be maintained by a sensory reinforcer in the form of smelling the pleasant scent. For extinction, this scent must no longer be obtainable.

For extinction to be effective, it must be applied decisively and consistently. However, an important point to remember is this: once the extinction procedure is initiated, the problem behavior may increase for a period and reappear in different forms. This is the expected initial effect of extinction. If this increase and diversification are at a level that cannot be managed or tolerated, extinction should not be applied. Furthermore, extinction alone does not teach the child new and appropriate behaviors. Therefore, it should always be used in conjunction with types of differential reinforcement. Thus, appropriate behaviors that the child can exhibit instead of the problem behavior are also taught.

Source Recommendations:

Behaviors are divided into two categories: single-step behaviors and chained behaviors. Behaviors with easily distinguishable beginnings and endings, such as stopping when seeing a “stop” sign or pointing with the index finger to an object whose name is spoken, are called single-step behaviors. Behaviors that require multiple single-step behaviors to be performed consecutively in a specific order, such as washing one's face, riding a bicycle, and putting on socks, are called chained behaviors. 

Task analysis is the process of ordering each step of a behavior in the sequence of its execution for teaching chained behaviors. Task analysis can be used in situations such as performing daily routines and following activities, like independent living skills (e.g., brushing teeth, making toast) and making the bed.

After the task analysis is prepared, chaining instruction is applied in teaching. Chaining is one of the effectively used practices in teaching behaviors in many areas such as academic, social, and communication skills to children with autism. Chaining instruction can be implemented in three ways:

  • Forward Chaining: In skill analysis, instruction begins with teaching the first step that the child is unable to perform, and once the child learns the step being worked on, instruction moves on to the next step. This process continues until all steps included in the skill analysis are taught.
  • Backward Chaining Instruction begins with the teaching of the last step that the child cannot perform in the task analysis, and once the child learns the step being worked on, teaching moves on to the previous step. This process is continued until all steps included in the task analysis are taught.
  • Teaching All Steps Together: All steps included in the task analysis that the child cannot perform are worked on within a single teaching trial, and instruction is provided. Therefore, in a teaching trial, instruction is delivered for all the steps that the child cannot perform independently in the task analysis.

Source Recommendations:

Parent-Implemented Interventions are programs that enable parents or other caregivers to participate as interventionists in the educational processes of their children with autism through training provided to them. In these interventions, parents receive training by participating in sessions organized in face-to-face or online settings, either individually or in group formats. Having learned specific strategies accompanied by teachers and specialists during the training process, parents aim to support their children's social, adaptive, and communication skills. During the implementation process, specialists utilize procedures such as modeling, coaching, and providing performance feedback to parents and caregivers.

The most important feature of family-based practices is that, in addition to supporting the child's developmental process, they strengthen parent-child interaction, increase parents' self-confidence, and help create teaching opportunities within daily routines. These practices support children's social and communication skills, adaptive behaviors, imitation, play, and interaction skills. Thanks to these practices, the relationship that parents establish with their children becomes more positive. Practices in which families are direct implementers offer a holistic approach that supports the development and quality of life not only of the children, but of the entire family.

Source Recommendations:

  • Çelik, S. (2021). Evidence-based practices I: Focused interventions. In B. Sucuoğlu, H. Bakkaloğlu & M. Ç. Ökçün Akçamuş (Eds.). From Diagnosis to Intervention Autism Spectrum Disorder Handbook (pp. 505-567). Academic Vizier.
  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.
  • https://www.project-impact.org/
  • https://www.triplep.net/provider-training-find-a-course/en/triple-p-training/ 

Augmentative and Alternative Communication includes aided or unaided communication systems that teach a child with autism the use of a vocal or non-verbal communication system to help them communicate with others.

  •   Unaided communication systems include forms of communication that do not require the use of any technology or material (for example, sign language, gestures).
  •   Augmentative and alternative communication systems include low-tech systems such as picture exchange, as well as high-tech systems such as speech-generating devices and smartphones.

which are among alternative and augmentative communication systems PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System), is based on applied behavior analysis techniques. In PECS, the child is taught to hand a picture of a desired object or activity to another person in order to obtain it. PECS can be taught to many children diagnosed with autism who are nonverbal or cannot use speech functionally. A significant portion of children who learn PECS are able to communicate, some begin to speak in addition to communication, and their problem behaviors decrease. On the other hand, there are also children with autism who get stuck at a certain stage of PECS or cannot benefit sufficiently from it.

Source Recommendations:

Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions are a set of interventions designed for children with autism and supported by scientific research showing their effectiveness. In these practices, principles of applied behavior analysis and a child development perspective are used together in the process of helping children acquire new behaviors and skills. At the core of these practices is conducting instruction within the natural learning opportunities the child encounters in daily life. During the instructional process, ABA-based practices such as differential reinforcement, prompting, modeling, shaping, and chaining are frequently utilized. The characteristics of this practice: 

  • It is done in natural environments and within daily routines so that children can learn behaviors, make them permanent, and use them in different settings. 
  • During the teaching process, the child's interest and leadership are monitored; that is, instruction is conducted in the direction of whichever object or activity the child enjoys. 
  • Various strategies are applied to keep the child's attention and motivation alive. 
  • Learned behaviors are supported by their immediate natural consequences, meaning natural reinforcers. 
  • Target behaviors appropriate for the child's developmental level are determined, and these behaviors are planned in a way that supports other skills as well. 
  • The complexity level of the taught knowledge and skills is progressively increased in parallel with the child's development. 
  • Appropriate behaviors that emerge spontaneously in natural environments are encouraged.

Incidental teaching, embedded instruction, Pivotal Response Training (PRT), and the Early Start Denver Model (ESDM) can be given as examples of naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions.

Source Recommendations:

  • Song, J., Reilly, M., & Reichow, B. (2025). Overview of meta-analyses on naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 55(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-06198-x 
  • Yüksel-Akgün, E. & Özen, A. (2024). Theoretical foundations of naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions. In A. Özen, F. Ünal & Ç. Tıkıroğlu (Eds.). Within natural developmental behavioral interventions for children with developmental disabilities (pp. 3-26). Academic Visa.

Exercise and Movement are physical activities aimed at developing motor skills such as balancing, kicking a ball, running, and hand-eye coordination in children with autism, thereby increasing their physical activity and reducing problem behaviors. In this practice, children with autism are systematically engaged in exercise- and movement-based activities planned for a specific duration; thus, both their problem behaviors and repetitive/obsessive behaviors are reduced. In addition to reducing problem behaviors, this practice also leads to increases in adaptive skills, cognitive development, communication, and social skills, and supports the child's overall well-being. 

Exercise and movement can prevent problem behaviors, especially when applied before entering environments where such behaviors are expected to occur or before starting activities. Exercise and movement practices are often used in conjunction with practices such as visual supports, prompting, and reinforcement.

Source Recommendations:

  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.

Early and Intensive Behavioral Intervention is a program initiated in the 1960s at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and supported by numerous studies. The program begins at the earliest possible age with one-on-one instruction and is conducted 20–40 hours per week. While discrete trial teaching was initially used intensively in practice, small and large group training and inclusive education have been incorporated over time. The practice was initially carried out mostly in each child's home, following a curriculum covering all developmental areas. 

Nearly half of the children who receive early and intensive behavioral training show significant progress in all areas and are able to continue the rest of their education in inclusive settings alongside typically developing peers. Developed in Turkey based on this model, Behavioral Education Program for Autistic Children (BEPAC), It is among the first comprehensive programs in our country to offer individualized and structured teaching to children with autism. OÇİDEP is based on progress through uninterrupted, intensive, one-on-one, and ABA-based practices for young children with autism.

Source Recommendations:

Relationship-Based practices are those that prioritize emotional development and connection in children. Among these practices, the most popular are DIR (Developmental Individual Relationship-Based-Gelişimsel, Bireysel, İlişki-Temelli Uygulamalar)/Floortime. In this practice, social interaction in free play environments with the child is essential. Thus, the goal is to develop the child’s ability to engage in spontaneous social interactions and ensure that the child enjoys these skills. During interactions, the child’s leadership is observed and it is accepted that every action has a meaning. Therefore, the child’s actions are not restricted or interrupted; on the contrary, they are encouraged to interact with the child by doing similar things. Floortime is not among scientifically-based practices. Although some small-scale studies have shown that Floortime can improve social communication and interaction skills in children, more research and long-term follow-up data are needed to say for certain that it is effective.

Source Recommendations:

Music-Mediated Intervention (MMI) are applications that use song, rhythm, and melodic tonalities to support the development of various skills. The practitioner systematically and purposefully involves autistic children in singing, listening, moving, playing instruments, and creative activities to elicit targeted behaviors and encourage them to exhibit these behaviors. These applications can be used in daily routines, activities, and games in special education and inclusion settings. Since activities such as listening to music, dancing, or playing an instrument can be highly preferred for autistic children, access to these types of activities can also be used as a reinforcement. 

Music-based interventions are particularly effective in helping children diagnosed with autism in early childhood, preschool, and childhood to gain communication, social, play, and motor skills, and to reduce problem behaviors. Applications using music and music therapy differ from each other. While music is used as a teaching tool in music-based practices, music therapy is the music itself. While music-based practices can be used by teachers, family members, or other professionals, music therapy is administered by a trained music therapist. While music-based practices aim to instill behavioral goals, music therapy aims to promote social and emotional development. 

Source Recommendations:

  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.
  • https://asatonline.org/for-parents/learn-more-about-specific-treatments/music-therapy/

The Princeton Child Development Institute (PCDI) was founded in 1970 and is a nonprofit organization that aims to provide scientific-based services to children, adolescents, and adults with autism. The services offered to individuals with autism at PCDI include: 

  • Early intervention services: 30 hours of training per week at home or at school.
  • Preschool and School Education Services: Approximately 5 hours of education per day, five days a week, in the school.
  • Adult Life Services: Supported employment and community life services.
  • Group Home Living: Independent living skills service in group homes that reflect a family environment.

PCDI has over 1600 skills that can meet the needs of individuals with autism between the ages of 0-21. These skills cover different developmental areas (for example, receptive-expressive language skills, peer interaction, health, money, imitation). For each child, individualized education programs (BEP) are prepared in line with the views of the families. Systematic reports on the development of the children are prepared and shared with family members and other stakeholders. Feedback is provided to teachers on the job and the aim is to enhance their professional skills.

The PCDI program was brought to Turkey by the Autism Foundation in 2006 TOHUM and is being implemented in Autism TOHUM Foundation Education Institutions. The TOHUM Autism Foundation Education Institutions, which are affiliated with the Ministry of National Education, accept children of the OSB age group for early childhood, pre-school, and school programs. There is a career development and life skills program for OSB individuals transitioning to young adulthood. High-quality applications covering all developmental areas, including communication and social interaction skills, are delivered through intensive one-on-one training sessions and group training. All these practices are conducted to ensure children’s access to and participation in their homes, schools, and other social environments. At the same time, teachers are systematically provided with feedback in the field, thereby aiming to improve their professional skills.

Source Recommendations:

  • Odom, S. L., Boyd, B. A., Hall, L. J., and Hume, K. (2010). Evaluation of comprehensive treatment models for individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(4), 425-436. DOI: 10.1007/s10803-009-0825-1
  • https://pcdi.org/
  • https://tohumotizm.org.tr/okulumuz/

Social stories (narratives) are short stories written in a specific format and aimed at a situation that is difficult or complex for the child. Through these stories, the process of instilling specific target behaviors in the child is carried out. Each story contains descriptive, guiding, reflective, and affirming sentences. 

Stories are written to the child's level; for children who know how to read and write, they are prepared using simple sentences and visuals; for those who do not know how to read and write, they are prepared using a wide range of visuals, such as photographs and drawings. A written story is read with the child at specific times and question-and-answer exercises are conducted. Then, opportunities are created to bring about the behavior. Strategies are used to increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring, and when the targeted behavior is achieved, it is effectively reinforced. 

You can review social narrative genres TOHUM from the resources section of the Autism Foundation Education Portal. https://www.tohumotizmportali.org/kaynaklar/egitim-materyalleri/sosyal-oykuler

Source Recommendations:

  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.

TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped) is an approach developed in the 1970s and known as structured teaching. The program takes into account the skills, interests, and needs of children with autism. In this approach, the goal is not for the child to conform to the environment, but for the environment to conform to the child. Therefore, the physical environment is specifically structured, activities are organized in predictable ways, visual plans can be prepared, and structured work areas are used.

Children practice certain skills by following their visual plans in their own work stations. In this way, they are trying to minimize their dependence on others. Although it is the program that benefits from visual support the most and is widely used all over the world, TEACCH does not have a strong experimental research background. Therefore, experimental research is needed to demonstrate the effects of TEACCH compared to other practices.

Source Recommendations:

Technology-based applications (Technology-Aided Instruction and Intervention) are defined as the use of tablet, smartphone, or computer-based programs to teach new skills to children with autism. Technology-based applications can support the independence of children with autism by providing solutions tailored to their individual needs and enabling them to integrate more effectively with society. 

Today, among technology-based applications, mobile applications, augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) technologies, social robots, AI-supported educational platforms, and communication devices are included. Technology-based applications have been developed in accordance with the needs of systematic learning, taking into account that autistic children learn more effectively through visual means. Communication-supported applications used from early childhood onwards, animated stories that describe social stories, emotion recognition applications, and virtual social interaction scenarios can lead to significant improvements in children’s communication, social skills, and adjustment behaviors. Furthermore, technology-based applications make it easier for teachers and parents to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning processes. For example, some apps offer the ability to track a child's development using graphs and create personalized programs.

Source Recommendations:

  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.

Therapeutic Applications

Cognitive behavioral strategies (Cognitive Behavioral/Instructional Strategies) are strategies aimed at teaching children to be aware of their own thoughts and emotions, recognize situations where negative thoughts and emotions are intensified, and then use various strategies to change their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. With cognitive behavioral strategies, children with autism are taught skills such as managing communication with others, awareness-based skills (e.g., staying in the present), managing emotions, and dealing with unwanted/unexpected situations, anxiety, and anger. The acquisition of these skills supports daily life skills, social skills, and emotional well-being, while also reducing problem behaviors. Visual supports, role play, social story, reinforcement, providing tips, and family/peer-based practices can also be used in cognitive behavioral strategies. As in the teaching of other skills, a systematic process should be followed for behaviors based on cognitive behavioral strategies. 

Cognitive behavioral strategies are particularly effective in supporting the mental well-being of children and adolescents and their preparation for school, improving their pre-academic and academic skills, social and communication behaviors, and reducing problem behaviors. 

Source Recommendations: 

  • Çelik, S. (2021). Evidence-based practices I: Focused interventions. B. Sucuoğlu, H. Bakkaloğlu & M. Ç. Ökçün Akçamuş (Editors). From Diagnosis to Intervention: The Autism Spectrum Disorder Handbook (pp. 505-567). Academic Vizier. 
  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team. 
  • https://autisminternetmodules.org/m/1032/6047

Sensory Integration is an approach developed in the 1970s by occupational therapist and educator Dr. A. Jean Ayres regarding the problems experienced by children with autism in their sense of touch, balance, body awareness, visual, auditory, or olfactory senses. In some sources, Ayres is also referred to as Sensory Integration. Sensory integration aims to develop children’s ability to perceive their sensory information (touch, movement, balance, vision, hearing, etc.) and to organize their bodies and provide appropriate motor and behavioral responses. The basic principles of sensory integration are:

  • The goal is for children to process environmental sensory information effectively and respond accordingly. 
  • The focus is on the brain's ability to change and adapt through experience. 
  • The therapy is structured with games and activities based on the child's interest and motivation.

Therapy is usually administered in specially designed environments, including materials and activities such as swings, climbing equipment, play with tactile materials, balance boards, and ball games. Sensory integration is effective in improving pre-academic and academic, adaptive, cognitive, social, communication, and motor skills in children with autism, and in reducing problem behaviors. There are other sensory integration practices besides Ayres Sensory Integration. However The only scientific basis is Ayres Sense Integration. 

Source Recommendations: 

Mindfulness-Based Interventions are practices that encourage individuals to pay attention to their thoughts, emotions, and bodily sensations, and to accept these experiences without judgment. These practices can be used to provide positive effects on stress management, emotional regulation, and overall well-being. Mindfulness-based interventions have no adverse effects on the individual and can be used by anyone to cope with stressful situations. However, the studies on the effects of mindfulness-based practices on the education of children with autism are still limited. For example, in a meta-analysis study conducted by Simione and colleagues, 37 studies were examined, and it was found that mindfulness-based practices have the potential to reduce psychological problems, reduce problem behaviors, and improve cognitive-social skills in individuals with autism. High-quality scientific research is needed to demonstrate the positive effects of these practices on individuals with autism. 

Source Recommendations: 

  • Simione, L., Frolli, A., Sciattella, F., & Chiarella, S. G. (2024). Mindfulness-based interventions for people with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic literature review. Brain Sciences, 14(10), Article 1001. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci1410100

There are currently no scientific studies showing that the therapies described below have a positive effect on children with autism, or the studies that have been conducted show that these therapies have no positive effect on children with autism. 

To obtain more detailed information about therapies with weak efficacy Education, Therapy, and Treatment Practices in Autism Spectrum Disorder – Our Guide for Teachers and Specialists Please review. 

  • Outdoor Events
  • Acupuncture 
  • Dance & Movement Therapy
  • Drama 
  • Sensory Diet
  • Animal-assisted applications  
  • Hypnotherapy 
  • Auditory Integration Therapy 
    • Bernard
    • Tomatis
    • FastForward
    • Binaural Beat
    • SAS
  • CranioSacral Therapy
  • Hug Therapy
  • Massage
  • Music Therapy
  • NeuroPLAY
  • Game Therapy
  • With the Prism Glasses
  • Art Therapy 
  • Yoga

Source Recommendations: 

  • Brondino, N., Fusar-Poli, L., Rocchetti, M., Provenzani, U., Barale, F., & Politi, P. (2015). Complementary and alternative therapies for autism spectrum disorder. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2015(1), 258589. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/258589 
  • National Autism Center. (2015). Findings and conclusions: National standards project, phase 2. Randolph, MA: Author
  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team. 
  • https://asatonline.org/for-parents/learn-more-about-specific-treatments/treatments-in-alphabetical-order/

Treatment Applications

Various psychiatric medications are used to reduce the behavioral problems such as hyperactivity, outbursts of anger, and obsessive behaviors in autistic children, and to improve their attention. The physicians who evaluate the child for medication treatment, decide on the medication treatment, and administer the treatment are pediatric psychiatrists and child neurologists. The choice of which medications to use and in what doses is of great importance. Therefore, the effects and side effects of these medications must be closely monitored by physicians. Therefore, children receiving medication treatment should be referred for a checkup once a year or twice a year. 

There are research findings showing some positive effects of psychiatric medications on the behaviors mentioned above. In TOHUM 2023, the Autism Foundation published a report on this topic:“Behavioral and Medical Interventions for Individuals with Autism with Severe Behavioral Problems”The report can be examined.

! Because of the wide variety of psychiatric medications and the fact that only doctors can decide which of these medications are more effective on which children, psychiatric treatment practices have been excluded from evaluation. 

!! No drug has yet been found that corrects the basic symptoms of autism. Although intensive work has been ongoing on some medications in this regard in recent years, there are no scientifically proven, repeatable, or large-scale studies.

Alternative and supportive treatment practices encompass practices based on approaches that often rely on natural, cultural, or holistic approaches beyond traditional medical approaches. For children with autism, these types of practices are often used alongside medical treatments or educational programs. Research on alternative and supportive treatment practices in autism is still in its very early stages. While some treatments are beginning to show promise, others are found to be ineffective, and some also have significant medical risks. In general, the following information is known about some alternative and supportive treatment practices: 

  • Although there is no definitive treatment method for autism yet, intensive behavioral interventions and early intervention have a great positive effect on the child's development. 
  • There is very little quality research on alternative and supportive treatment practices in the field of autism. 
  • Higher-quality research is needed to understand the effects of these treatments on autism and to provide guidance to families and practitioners. 
  • There is no scientific evidence that secretin, hyperbaric oxygen, and many other alternative and complementary treatment methods improve autism. 
  • Parents, practitioners, and experts should approach products and practices that claim to treat a wide range of diseases with skepticism, avoid giving opinions, be cautious about “quick fixes” and “miraculous cures,” and instead should research the scientific basis of the products and practices. 
  • It should be remembered that decontamination with heavy metals, laundry water therapy, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, and alternative and complementary applications such as marijuana and hemp oil are risky for the child’s health.

Below are two treatments that are considered moderately effective in the treatment of children with autism.

Derin Beyin Uyarımı (Deep Brain Stimulation – DBS), nörolojik ya da bazı psikiyatrik hastalıkların tedavisinde tercih edilmekte; cerrahi yöntemlerle yerleştirilen elektrotlar aracılığıyla beynin belirli bölgelerine elektriksel uyarılar gönderilmektedir. Başta Parkinson hastalığı, titreme ve distoni olmak üzere; epilepsi, tedaviye dirençli depresyon, obsesif kompulsif bozukluk ve Tourette sendromunun ileri vakalarında kullanılan etkili bir tedavi yöntemidir. 2024 yılında Herrera‐Pino ve arkadaşları tarafından yapılan bir çalışmada, otizm ve ileri derecede zihin yetersizliği tanısı almış çocuk ve ergenlerde görülen saldırgan ve kendine zarar verici davranışların tedavisinde DBS uygulamalarının etkililiği ve güvenilirliği incelendi. Veriler DBS’nin bu grupta saldırganlık belirtilerinin sıklığında ve şiddetinde anlamlı bir azalma sağladığını gösterdi. Ayrıca sosyal işlevsellik, uyumsal davranışlar ve genel klinik iyilik hâlinde de iyileşmeler bildirildi. Benzer biçimde, Gorodetsky ve arkadaşları tarafından yürütülen başka bir çalışmada; tedaviye dirençli, kendine zarar verme davranışı gösteren ve otizm tanısı almış 7–14 yaş arası altı çocukta, saldırganlık sıklığı ve şiddetinde %30’dan fazla azalma ile birlikte yaşam kalitesinde belirgin artış gözlendi. Bulgular, DBS’nin ciddi kendine zarar verme davranışı gösteren çocuklar için umut vadeden bir tedavi seçeneği olabileceğini ortaya koymakta; ancak bu konuda daha geniş ölçekli ve kontrollü çalışmalara gereksinim olduğunu da vurgulamaktadır. Öte yandan, otizmde görülen problem davranışların beyindeki kesin kaynakları henüz net olarak belirlenmediğinden, uzmanlar bazı önemli hatırlatmalarda bulunmaktadır.

  • DBS should only be considered in individuals with very serious and chronic behavioral problems who do not respond to traditional and pharmacological treatments.
  • The individual must be treated by a multidisciplinary team; the intervention must be performed in advanced-level centers with experienced specialists in the field of DBS, and regular monitoring and follow-up studies must be conducted after the implementation.

Source Recommendations:

  • Gorodetsky, C., Mithani, K., Breitbart, S., Yan, H., Zhang, K., Gouveia, F. V., Warsi, N., Suresh, H., Wong, S. M., Huber, J., Kerr, E. N., Kulkarni, A. V., Taylor, M. J., P Hagopian, L., Fasano, A., & Ibrahim, G. M. (2025). Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens for Severe Self-Injurious Behavior in Children: A Phase I Pilot Trial. Biological Psychiatry, 97(12), 1116–1126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.001 
  • Herrera-Pino, J., Benedetti-Isaac, J., Ripoll-Córdoba, D., Camargo, L., Castillo-Tamara, E. E., MoralesAsencio, B., … & López, N. (2024). Effectiveness of deep brain stimulation on refractory aggression in pediatric patients with autism and severe intellectual disability: Meta-analytic review. BMC Pediatrics, 24(1), 487. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-024-04920-x 

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is a treatment that aims to regulate the brain’s natural electrical activity by generating a magnetic field without any electrical current being delivered to the brain from the outside. It is believed that this treatment can help treat some diseases by balancing the irregular electrical activity of the brain. Research on the effects of TMS on autism is ongoing but progressing slowly. In a 2023 study, Smith and colleagues reviewed 12 studies in which TMS was administered to individuals with autism. The study showed that the treatment reduced symptoms of autism such as repetitive behaviors and cognitive difficulties, but had yet to have an impact on social communication and interaction skills. The study emphasizes that while the treatment is promising for the treatment of autism, more robust studies are needed. As a result, more research is needed to clarify the role of TMS in the treatment of autism. 

Source Recommendations: 

  • Smith, J. R., DiSalvo, M., Green, A., Ceranoglu, T. A., Anteraper, S. A., Croarkin, P., & Joshi, G. (2023). Treatment response of transcranial magnetic stimulation in intellectually capable youth and young adults with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review, 33(4), 834-855. DOI:10.1007/s11065-022-09564-1.  

The feeding patterns of children with autism can sometimes differ from those of typically developing children. These differences can manifest themselves in limited food preferences, sensory sensitivities, adherence to meal-eating routines, and certain digestive problems. This causes families to seek different methods to support their child’s development. Some families supplement their children’s diet with non-nutritional supplements (such as probiotics, amino acids, enzymes, or heavy metal cleaners). It is suggested that these practices support the digestive system, regulate the immune system, or positively affect neurological functions. However, scientific research to date has not proven that such supplements have a definitive effect on the symptoms of autism. Similarly, although special dietary approaches such as the gluten or casein diet are preferred by some families, there is no strong scientific evidence that such diets are appropriate and effective for all children. 

Healthy and balanced nutrition is of great importance not only for individuals with autism but for all children and adults as well. In some cases, vitamin or mineral supplementation may be necessary. However, using these supplements, especially for therapeutic purposes and without expert supervision, can lead to serious health problems. There is no scientific evidence that any vitamin or nutritional supplement can treat autism. Therefore, any supplement should be used only after consulting a physician. 

To support the feeding habits of children with autism, the following recommendations can help parents in their daily lives: 

  • Recognize Sensory Sensitivities:
    • Offer new foods in small amounts alongside familiar foods.
    • Make the adjustment process easier by increasing the variety of colors, textures, and temperatures.
    • Allow the child to touch and smell the food; do not force them to eat it.
  • Create Meal Routines:
    • Plan the meal times at the same times of day and in similar environments.
    • Make it easier for them to transition to eating with visual cues or verbal reminders.
  • Create a Positive and Relaxing Environment:
    • Make meal time a pleasant activity, not a battleground.
    • Give positive reactions when they try new foods, and reinforce them.
  • Ensure Adequate Fluid Intake:
    • Use colorful straws and fun cups to make drinking water appealing.
    • Support fluid intake with alternatives such as milk and fruit juice, but don't go overboard.
  • Move Ahead with One-Type Nutrition:
    • To avoid relying on just a few foods, offer foods that look similar but have different ingredients.
    • For example, if they only eat pasta, you can diversify by adding chopped vegetables.
  • Approach Supplements and Special Diets Consciously:
    • Healthy and balanced nutrition is important for all children. In some cases, vitamin or mineral supplements may be needed.
    • However, such supplements do not treat autism and, especially when used without medical supervision, can pose risks to children's health.
    • Every child is different; a diet or supplement that works for one child may not work for your child.
    • Therefore, all special diets and supplements must be planned under the supervision of a pediatrician or dietitian.
  • Track Constipation and Digestive Problems:
    • Include fibrous foods in your diet (for example: whole grains, vegetables, and fruits).
    • Encourage him to move and ensure he drinks plenty of water.

Source Recommendations: 

  • Topaloğlu, B., & Sümer, E. (2025). Healthy nutrition for children with special needs. Turkish Ministry of Health, General Directorate of Public Health.

There are currently no scientific studies showing that the treatment practices shown below have a positive effect on children with autism, or the studies that have been conducted have shown that this practice has no positive effect on children with autism. 

To obtain more detailed information about treatments with weak effects Education, Therapy, and Treatment Practices in Autism Spectrum Disorder – Our Guide for Teachers and Specialists Please review. 

  • Remoaning from Heavy Metals
  • Fish oil
  • Laundry Water Therapy
  • DAN! The protocol
  • Adding Non-Nutritional Additives to the Diet 
    • Various Amino Acids
    • Prebiotic
    • Probiotics
  • Elimination Diets
    • Camel milk
    • GAPS diet 
    • Gluten-Casein diet
    • FODMAP diet (Fermentable Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides and Polysaccharides)
    • Ketogenic diet 
    • Cheese whey
    • Extraction of dairy products
  • Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy
  • Homeopathy 
  • Intravenous Immunoglobulin Therapy
  • Chiropractic Care
  • Stem Cell Therapy 
  • Fungal Treatment 
  • Marijuana Treatment
  • Magnets 
  • Neurofeedback-based therapies 
  • Neuro-Modulation
  • Treatment with Oxytocin 
  • Ozone Therapy 
  • Treatment of Secretion 
  • Shaleous Therapy
  • Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS)
  • Vitamin and Supplement Support
  • Oils
    • Essential oils
    • Hemp oil

*ATTENTION! These practices can be risky for the child's health.

Source Recommendations: 

  • Fuentes, J., Hervás, A., Howlin, P., & (ESCAP ASD Working Party). (2021). ESCAP practice guidance for autism: a summary of evidence-based recommendations for diagnosis and treatment. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(6), 961-984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01587-4 
  • Levy, S. E., & Hyman, S. L. (2015). Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24(1), 117-143.
  • National Autism Center. (2015). Findings and conclusions: National standards project, phase 2. Randolph, MA: Author
  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team. 
  • General Directorate of Health Services of the Turkish Ministry of Health (2022). Autism Spectrum Disorder Family Guide. Ankara.
  • https://asatonline.org/for-parents/learn-more-about-specific-treatments/treatments-in-alphabetical-order/